The Origin of Our Solar System

The Origin of Our Solar System One of the most-posed inquiries of space experts is: how did our Sun and planets arrive? Its a decent inquiry and one that scientists are replying as they investigate the nearby planetary group. There has been no deficiency of hypotheses about the introduction of the planets throughout the years. This isn't amazing thinking about that for quite a long time the Earth was accepted to be the focal point of the whole universe, also our close planetary system. Normally, this prompted a misevaluation of our starting points. Some early hypotheses proposed that the planets were spat out of the Sun and cemented. Others, less logical, recommended that some divinity basically made the nearby planetary group from nothing in only a couple days. The truth, in any case, is undeniably all the more energizing is as yet a story being rounded out with observational data.â As our comprehension of our place in the universe has developed, we have reexamined the topic of our beginnings. Be that as it may, so as to distinguish the genuine birthplace of the nearby planetary group, we should initially recognize the conditions that such a hypothesis would need to meet. Properties of Our Solar System Any persuading hypothesis regarding the starting points of our nearby planetary group ought to have the option to satisfactorily clarify the different properties in that. The essential conditions that must be clarified include: The situation of the Sun at the focal point of the sun oriented system.The parade of the planets around the Sun a counterclockwise way (as saw from over the north post of Earth).The position of the little rough universes (the earthbound planets) closest to the Sun, with the enormous gas monsters (the Jovian planets) further out.The reality that all the planets seem to have conformed to a similar time as the Sun.The concoction structure of the Sun and planets.The presence of comets and space rocks. Recognizing a Theory The main hypothesis to date that meets the entirety of the necessities expressed above is known as the sun powered cloud hypothesis. This recommends the nearby planetary group showed up at its present structure subsequent to crumbling from an atomic gas cloud some 4.568 billion years back. Fundamentally, a huge sub-atomic gas cloud, a few light-years in measurement, was upset by a close by occasion: either a supernova blast or a passing star making a gravitational unsettling influence. This occasion made locales of the cloud start clustering together, with the inside piece of the cloud, being the densest, crumbling into a solitary article. Containing over 99.9% of the mass, this article started its excursion to star-hood by first turning into a protostar. In particular, it is accepted that it had a place with a class of stars known as T Tauri stars. These pre-stars are portrayed by encompassing gas mists containing pre-planetary issue with the greater part of the mass contained in the star itself. The remainder of the issue out in the encompassing circle provided the basic structure hinders for the planets, space rocks, and comets that would in the end structure. Around 50 million years after the underlying stun wave actuated the breakdown, the center of the focal star got hot enough to touch off atomic combination. The combination provided enough warmth and weight that it offset the mass and gravity of the external layers. By then, the newborn child star was inâ hydrostatic harmony, and the article was formally a star, our Sun. In the district encompassing the infant star, little, hot globs of material impacted together to frame bigger and bigger worldlets called planetesimals. In the end, they turned out to be sufficiently enormous and had enough self-gravity to accept round shapes.â As they became bigger and bigger, these planetesimals framed planets. The inward universes stayed rough as the solid sunlight based breeze from the new star cleared a great part of the nebular gas out to colder areas, where it was caught by the developing Jovian planets. Today, a few leftovers of those planetesimals stay, some as Trojan space rocks that circle along a similar way of a planet or moon. Inevitably, this accumulation of issue through impacts eased back down. The recently framed assortment of planets accepted stable circles, and some of them relocated out toward the external sun based system.â Does the Solar Nebula Theory Apply to Other Systems? Planetary researchers have gone through years building up a hypothesis that coordinated the observational information for our close planetary system. The equalization of temperature and mass in the internal close planetary system clarifies the game plan of universes that we see. The activity of planet arrangement additionally influences how planets sink into their last circles, and how universes are fabricated and afterward changed by progressing crashes and assault. In any case, as we watch other heavenly bodies, we find that their structures shift fiercely. The nearness of enormous gas monsters close to their focal star doesnt concur with the sun based cloud hypothesis. It most likely implies that there are some progressively dynamical activities researchers havent represented in the theory.â Some feel that the structure of our nearby planetary group is the one that is remarkable, containing a substantially more unbending structure than others. Eventually this implies maybe the advancement of universes isn't as carefully characterized as we once accepted.

My Personality And Educational Background Education Essay Free Essays

Presentation This paper will abdominal muscle initio pull a mystery plan on my character and instructive foundation, in this way on it will focus on what propelled me to investigate the Masters Degree at Bangor Business School comprising grouped rationale hypotheses. Learning habits and assaults will bespeak the way I will larn to help through the top achievement in the evaluation. I will set about a gathering coursework following this task, thusly I will draw out all bing each piece great as potential issues that may start in the gathering work and will bespeak adequate and potential arrangements. We will compose a custom exposition test on My Personality And Educational Background Education Essay or then again any comparative point just for you Request Now At last I will pull a choice. Scenery Study is one my preferred side interests. The family unit environmental factors I have been raising up could non offer an incredible entirety of riches yet energized me going yearning for being Highly Educated. In 2003, in the wake of finishing ‘A ‘level from Bangladesh I got conceded in Sunderland University and got BSC in Computer Applications. In June 2006 I began my first bringing in a medium estimated bundle house as a former student IT coder. Weariness got me short-term because of karma of cultural feel in that calling aside from connection with machines. Also, as an outgoing person singular, I appreciate cultural cooperations non simply in close to home life yet next to at work-place ; want to ‘work with pleasance ‘ and anxious to interest imaginativenesss in signal. ( Eysenck ( 1970, 1990 ) After convey throughing an astute thought, I decided my future bringing in banking division as I at any point had an intense association in the monetary framework, the worry and money universe by and large. Other than I accumulated understanding while at the same time dissecting in Sunderland University, from a momentary work at Barclays Bank Plc where I found a cultural dash of blending in with new individuals and found my sublime relational and imparting achievements ; which trigger my motivation of fall ining Nationwide, the biggest structure society known to man ( History ( Nationwide Building Society, 2010 ) , in January 2007. Since so I have been convey oning arranged administrative capacities with incredible victories ; and late I have begun increasing a worry A ; course situated Masters Degree making can contribute up my calling banking part much further. Inspiration elements to break down the Masters Degree at Bangor University Orchestrating to Huczynski A ; Buchanan ( 2007 ) , human thought process can be affected from arranged discrete yet related positions. It is an intellectual dynamic methodology to take an end ; to achieve that ideal end our practices ever power, as we brought into the world with some unconditioned natural gear. For example, pushes which are remarkable requests for being, which include of holding O, H2O, supplement, safe house, warmth, and sex. Moreover some different requests can other than be arranged as pushes after convey throughing intrinsic requests which incorporates eagerness for geting cognizance, yearning, love, and energy. These requests other than can drive an individual convey oning grouped hard endeavors. In my specific circumstance, in like manner different requests in pushes class, enthusiasm for geting insight and being goal-oriented for most elevated creation had driven me one chance to travel to another country in youngster and same intrinsic inclination supported m e one time again to get considerably higher creation at Bangor. The previously mentioned build will be more clear by Maslow ‘s ( 1943 ) Content hypothesis of Motivation which centers around what closes people look for thus gives organizations to achieve those ideal outcomes. Content hypothesis portrays nine unique sorts of inspirations or requests, which drive people to achieve their closures. Those requests are arranged as natural, security, affiliation, regard, cognizing and getting, feel, amazing quality, opportunity of inquiry and look, and self-completion. Prominently, regard and self-realization requests support a man for being sure to build up his full strength. Taking Maslow ‘s Content hypothesis into history, I emphatically observe myself, a man who is spurred by the impact of confidence and self-realization, and who has most extreme affirmation and enthusiasm to blast his full strength in existent. In this manner, my fear was taking a permission in Bangor University in MBA in Banking and fund would bring through my normal en d and would clamor my intensity. There is a saying â€Å" taking right assurance in right moment is another cardinal segment to achieve closes † . ‘Why individuals decide to achieve certain closures? ‘ the answer will be ‘cognitive-choice doing strategy impacts us to take the closures, since we are purposive in nature ‘ . In light of Vroom ‘s ( 1964 ) , Expectancy hypothesis of thought process which clarifies individual ‘s conduct is driven by viewpoint. What's more, viewpoint work in simultaneousness with high estimation of anticipated outcome. Correspondingly, a high viewpoint of achieving a top creation each piece great as immense discernment in a particular nation ( for example banking and money ) , gigantically impacted me to fall in a Masters Program at Bangor University, such a very much rumored foundation. At long last, cultural impact is another central point that inspires people towards a conclusion to achieve. In light of Herzberg ‘s ( 1966, 1968 ) occupation improvement hypothesis of intention which centers around how fulfillment impacts a man to be persuaded. In this hypothesis two fundamental components are broadly talked about. One, inborn wagess are esteemed outcomes which are constrained by single, for example, sentiments of fulfillment and triumph. The natural wages we can get by executing our normal exercises. For case, a few people like bold and jolting exercises, for example, mountain mounting, Bungee-bouncing, sky-jumping, etc ; those individuals volitionally perform such unsafe and perilous exercises for their ain pleasance. The greater part of the clasp, a similar regulation is being trailed by some different people ; like, researchers, artists, journalists, instrumentalists, and painters. I completely consent to aforementioned hypothesis in my own specific situat ion. For case, in the event that I can complete the Masters Degree achieving expected result ( for delineation, separation ) , I will be intellectually honored of accepting my every single troublesome plant have been paid off. This esteemed inclination may trip my thought process one time again to arraign myself for much farther employee each piece great as calling designed development, as it happened before picking Masters Program at Bangor. Two, Extrinsic wagess are esteemed outcomes inside the control of others, for example, affirmation, improvement and cash. In my situation, a worry related Masters Degree can accelerate my calling designed development, and for non holding a worry foundation, my farther calling designed development in banking industry was in request. When I understood this issue I was deliberately accepting of providing a range over my experience and guidance. This acknowledgment unfalteringly roused me bringing segment into MBA in Banking and Finance at Bangor U niversity to run up in future calling ; which would offer me outward wagess in close henceforth, for example, better calling possibility, exposure, higher compensation, big name, and so on. Individual Learning habits and assaults Fitting to Huczynski A ; Buchanan ( 2007 ) , Learning is the system of accomplishing perception intensive experience which prompts an opposing change in conduct. In mental science, procurement is one of the most crucial each piece great as pugnacious subjects. Since it is extremely difficult to elucidate ‘how do we larn ‘ , we can non see what goes inside our caput, however it just reflects when our conduct modifications. Other than now and then, encounters might be the offices of conduct changes. On the different manus, our worries are in an unchanging region of improvement. We can larn things from milieus without perceiving that we have simply leant. It in my unique circumstance, the initial twenty-four hours when I moved in Bangor, I was non aware of about the college area, areas of talk theaters, how to enlist for the class. Yet, in the truly brief time of clasp, I figured out how to larn everything from milieus and encounters. People groups ‘s larning way shifts, however there is a typical procurement beat called, ‘Kolb ‘s Learning Cycle ‘ , stomach muscle initio proposed by Kurt Lewin ( 1946, replicated in 1948 ) , a German-american analyst who got that idea from control innovation, which in this way on advocated by David Kolb ( 1984 ) . This Learning Cycle contains four correlative components demoing how individuals learn new things. One: individuals gain encounters from arranged happenings, two: each piece instantly as happening happened individuals begin distinguishing ; which reflects in their mind over and over, three: so individuals begin bring forthing general builds of that occurrence, four: in the end individuals use as of now picked up develops or encounters for future test. Again individuals have various habits to follow with aforementioned larning mood. In view of Kolb ‘s ( 1984 ) work, Honey and Mumford ( 1986 ) built up a Learning Style Questionnaire. Utilizing that examination poll they distinguished four diverse obtaining habits which change single insightful. One: Militant, who ever anxious to larn something new, two: Reflector, who needs to take cut and accept about the subject before larning anything new, three: Theorist, who needs to figure out the correlativity among old and new builds before obtaining, four: Pragmatist, who needs to test the subject before larning anything new using as of now picked up encounters. ( See Figure-1 ) Figure-1: The Lewinian Experiential Learning Model ( after Kolb, 1984, p21 ) with the connected Honey and Mumford Learning Styles in italics ( Honey and Mumford, 1986 ) ( Learning Style

Holidays of Spanish-Speaking Countries

Occasions of Spanish-Speaking Countries In the event that youre going to a Spanish-talking zone, one interesting point is the countrys parties, occasions and different festivals. On the positive side, you may get an open door for an upclose take a gander at the countrys culture and an opportunity to take an interest in exercises youll see no place else; then again, with a portion of the more significant occasions, organizations might be shut, open transportation may swarmed and lodgings might be hard to save. Spring Holidays On account of the Roman Catholic legacy, in about all the Spanish-talking world la Semana Santa, or Holy Week, the prior week Easter, is among the most broadly celebrated of occasions. Explicit days watched incorporate el Domingo de Ramos, or Palm Sunday, a festival of Jesus triumphal section into Jerusalem before his demise; el Jueves Santo, which remembers la Última Cena de Jesã ºs (the Last Supper); el Viernes Santo, or Good Friday, denoting the day of Jesus passing; and the weeks peak, el Domingo de Pascua or la Pascua de Resurrecciã ³n, or Easter, a festival of Jesus Resurrection. The dates of la Semana Santa differ from year to year. Winter Holidays La Navidad, or Christmas, is likewise all around celebrated on December 25. Related days incorporate la Nochebuena (Christmas Eve, December 24), el dã ­a de san Esteban (St. Stephens Day, regarding the man customarily accepted to be the primary Christian saint, on December 26), el dã ­a de san Juan Evangelista (St. Johns Day, on December 27), el dã ­a de los Santos Inocentes (Day of the Innocents, regarding the children who, as indicated by the Bible, were requested butchered by King Herod, December 28) and el dã ­a de la Sagrada Familia (the Day of the Holy Family, watched the Sunday after Christmas), finishing in la Epifanã ­a (January 6, Epiphany, the twelfth day of Christmas, denoting the day los magos or Wise Men showed up to see the baby Jesus). In this is el Aã ±o Nuevo, or New Years, which commonly is praised starting on el Nocheviejo, or New Years Eve. Freedom Holidays Most Latin American nations likewise praise an Independence Day to check the day of detachment from Spain or, in a couple of cases, some other nation. Among the dã ­as de la independencia are February 12 (Chile), Feb. 27 (Dominican Republic), May 24 (Ecuador), July 5 (Venezuela), July 9 (Argentina), July 20 (Colombia), July 28 (Peru), August 6 (Bolivia), August 10 (Ecuador), August 25 (Uruguay), September 15 (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua), September 16 (Mexico) and November 28 (Panama). Spain, in the mean time, praises its Dã ­a de la Constituciã ³n (Constitution Day) on December 6. Different Days of Celebration: Dã ­a del Trabajo or Dã ­a del Trabajador - May Day or Labor Day is broadly seen on May 1.Fiesta Nacional de Espaã ±a - This day, saw on October 12, denotes the appearance of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. It additionally passes by different names, including la Fiesta de la Hispanidad. In Latin America, it is regularly known as el Dã ­a de la Raza.Cinco de Mayo - This Mexican festival denoting a triumph in the Battle of Puebla has been traded to the United States, where it is more broadly saw than in Mexico.DÃ ­a de la Asunciã ³n - A day honoring the Assumption of Mary is seen in certain nations on August 15.DÃ ­a de la Revoluciã ³n - Mexico praises the beginning of the Mexican Revolution on the third Monday of November.DÃ ­a de Todos Santos - All Saints Day is generally seen on November 1.

Science and nature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Science and nature - Essay Example e of this conversation is to examine the connection among science and nature by assessing whether they are restricted or complimentary of each other. From a logical perspective, there is an approach to interface everything common identified with the earth and to nature. One can locate that organic life is brimming with numerical constants, physical constants, etc. For instance, due to the earth’s gravity; the speed of maximum speed is consistently the equivalent for any article. This can be meant the model that a plume dropped from a 100 story building and a stone dropped from the very same3 building; will arrive at precisely the same most extreme speed in the long run which is obviously maximum speed. Different constants, for example, the bubbling temperature for water or the point of solidification of water will consistently be the equivalent paying little heed to where one is situated on the planet given that the water isn't spoiled. These models are only a couple of thousands of models which embroil the conviction of logical law. When exchanging perspectives quickly from a standard logical perspective and watching the earth’s characteristic magnificence from a place of miracle and stunningness, one doesn't have to realize the point of solidification of water to watch and pay heed to the excellence of a snow fall in winter. So also, one doesn't have to know the numerical portrayal of max speed to welcome the quiet influence of leaves tumbling from their branches in fall. Grasping the association between everything in nature; even from an exceptionally determined and logical mindfulness, one can in any case be stunned at the rich shades of the setting sun at sunset or the inky grays of a moving toward storm. One may take a gander at the sky at nightfall and pause for a minute to welcome the full range of hues spoke to while realizing that what they are seeing is refracted light from the sun which is just being divided and diverted at the purpose of the skyline as the earth pivots through its every day cy cle. Certain things

50 Research Proposal Topics Ideas for Writing a Masters Dissertation

50 Research Proposal Topics Ideas for Writing a Masters Dissertation Best plans to compose a triumphant research proposition for Ph.D. thesis. Here are a few thoughts for the alumni understudy needing the exploration proposition subjects for their Ph.D. paper or Masters Thesis. They are arranged by a few of the most famous offices (English, Political Science, History, and so forth.) and by trouble. English/Literature Straightforward: The Lasting Influence of the Beat Generation: How Their Literature Speaks to Posterity Debauchery in American Literature The Macabre of Edgar Allen Poe Moderate: How the English Language Has Evolved Over the Last 20 Years Due to Improvements in Technology Sexuality in Contemporary English/American Literature Masochism and Sadism in British Gothic Literature Troublesome: The Long-Lasting Effects of Individualism in British Romantic Literature Ecological Ethics in American and American Indian Literature from the seventeenth Century to the Present The Pretentiousness of British Literature and its Exclusion of the American Reader History Basic: How History Helps Humanity Avoid Making the Mistakes of Old Women’s Right and Women’s Suffrage Moderate: Government through Asian Eyes The Geographical Limitations of the Roman Empire Troublesome: The Fall of the Roman Empire Examination of FDR and Winston Churchill During World War II Political Theory Basic: Inward Workings of the European Union Moderate: Changes in Diplomacy After World War II The History of Diplomacy Since the Middle Ages Troublesome: Malaysian Foreign Policy in the Post-Mahathir Era, (2003-Present) The Haitian Crisis of 1991-1994: Constraints and Asymmetry in United States-Latin American Relations Religion/Theology Straightforward: Christianity in the American South Reorganization of Martin Luther during the Renaissance Period Moderate: Otherworldliness of the Native American Indian Deciphering the Bible in the 21st Century Troublesome: The Diverging Views of Christianity in Europe Instruction Straightforward: Points of interest and Disadvantages to Standardized Testing in the United States 21st Century Approaches to Education Moderate: Employment installed Learning: How Teachers Learn from One Another During the Workday Troublesome: A Review and Analysis of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 Theory Straightforward: Applications and the Relevance of Existentialism in the 21st Century Insufficient Causation in Leibniz Moderate: Discerning Hope in Kants Moral Religion Heideggers Critique of the Cartesian Problem of Skepticism Troublesome: The Prescriptivity of Conscious Belief Aristotle on Modality and Determinism Brain research Straightforward: The Effect of Positive Thinking on Life Success Recognizing Predictors of Aggression in Children Moderate: Outrage, Aggression, and Irrational Beliefs in Adolescents Passionate Intelligence as a Predictor of Victimization Among Adolescent Males Troublesome: Balanced Emotive Behavior Play Therapy versus Customer Centered Therapy Using a Psycho-Educational Intervention to Reduce the Effects of Exposure to Media Images of Body of Young Adolescent Girls Criminal Justice Straightforward: Juvenile Deviance Within Families and Neighborhoods Procedural Justice During Police-Citizen Encounters Moderate: Meta-Analysis of Early Life Influences on Behavior in Criminals Troublesome: The Effects of Individual Vulnerability and Lifestyle/Routine Activities on Fear of Crime and Perceptions of Risk in the School Setting The Adoption of Crime Prevention Technologies in Public Schools News coverage Straightforward: A Look at How Objective Journalism and Free Speech Sustains Democracy †and How the Absence of Both Promotes Autocracy Moderate: Exposure Matters: How Promotional Journalism and Public-Relations Marketing Can Go Hand in Hand New Journalism: How the Incorporation of Narrative and Fiction Techniques Brought Forth an Innovative Approach to Conveying the News and News-Worthy Topics Troublesome: The Transition from Print Media to Online/Digital Media and the Role of Both Moving Forward You may utilize the subjects above as the plans to begin with your own examination proposition. Inform us as to whether you havent found a thought identified with your field of study and well attempt to give you one.

Using A Business Of Your Choice As An Example, Describing The

Using A Business Of Your Choice As An Example, Describing The Using A Business Of Your Choice As An Example, Describing The Components Of An Information System â€" Assignment Example > Institute Table of ContentsNumber range 1-31- Executive Summery In organizations like that the retail industry where minimization of the cost is crucial, enhanced communication approaches through more proficient communication technologies as well as information systems are very important in eventually enhancing responsiveness to consumers and maximizing customer value. This report presents a detailed analysis of the information system technology components at Woolworth’s business. Here I will outline some important aspects regarding the IS technology components such as hardware, software, databases, internal data communication / networking, external data communication / networking, managerial consideration, security consideration and ethical consideration. 2- Introduction The Australian supermarket business is in its highly grown stage of life cycle with high rivalry along with the two main players in this marketplace; Coles and Woolworths. The business of the Woolworths was sta rted in 1924 and presently established as a main marketplace leader by having over 40% of marketplace share. As viewing porter’s five forces model, the general business attractiveness is able to be considered low in conditions of fresh entrants as well as established corporation. Additionally, transformations in business technology, regulations and customer demographics have been the foremost moving forces in the business influencing competitiveness of corporation. In addition, the low cost arrangement, store locations, technology and client service have been important for the accomplishment of corporate in this business. Woolworths as an Australian supermarket business leader has been the main strength of new information technology based working and operational stature that is facilitating Woolworths to attain its basic economies of scale. However a main threat facing the corporation is the rising presence of global competitors in the marketplace. Additionally, low cost arrange ment and brand equity can be observed as fundamental competencies of Woolworths Business. Also Woolworths has paid a heavy attention on the supply chain management intended for the well-organized management of its value chain and its low cost arrangement and brand equity have helped a lot in establishing sustainability of the business. In case of establishment of the new technology (IS) based structure at the business of the Woolworths has presented a lot of business advantages (Woodhead, 2008) (Woolworths-1, 2010). In this scenario the business of Woolworths has attained a better competitive edge through web based supply chain and overall business IS and reporting systems. This report will present a detailed overview of the Woolworths business’s information technology components. 3- Woolworths Information Technology SystemsSince the establishment of Woolworths the corporate has attained a lot of business achievements these can be attaining a high peak position in the market and establishment of more effective information technology arrangement. Woolworths, is continuously improving its overall business information technology systems. Woolworths's senior company manager, Ian McDonald, has stated that business data integrity is important to the achievement of the EANnet based supply-chain program for business. He highlighted that Woolworths has dedicated to start channels of communication with its customers and suppliers using a range of channels. Additionally, the customers and suppliers of business have to be aware about the correct business information that is very important to the feasibility of Woolworths' new business inventory management systems (Woolworths-1, 2010). Woolworth’s two main corporate strategies have been unrelated diversification and tactical acquisitions and focuses on corporate cost leadership as well as discrimination in terms of customers in store experience like its business level policy. Woolworths cannot able to attain these objectives without an appropriate business technology. The new ecommerce supported information technology arrangement of the Woolworths has offered the business a more enhanced facility to make the business more capable to attain these objectives in the long run (Woodhead, 2008) (Woolworths-1, 2010).

Alpine Plant Climate - Free Essay Example

Alpine plant biodiversity in the Central Himalayan region: Perspective of global climate change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 C 0.2 C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4 C to 5.8 C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3C in the decade of 2050s and about 5C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitation over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and distrib ution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Application 10: 811-823. Purohit, A.N. (2003). Studies on Structural and Functional Aspects of Timberline Vegetation in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Garhwal Himalaya, Ph.D Thesis, Deptt. Of Botany, H.N.B.Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal. Saxena K.G., Ramakrishnan, P.S, Maikhuri, R.K, Rao, K.S, Patnaik, S. (2004). Assessment Of Vulnerability Of Forests, Meadows And Mountain Ecosystems Due To Climate Change. Com-4E: Winrock Agriculture, Forestry Ch-14 pm6 2nd Proof 20-01-04. Argiculture Forestry And Natural Ecosystem.pp.163-168. Zhang, Y. and Welker, J.M. (1996). Tibetan Alpine Tundra Responses To Simulated Changes In Climate: Aboveground Biomass And Community Responses, Arctic And Alpine Research, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 203 209. Smith, S.D., Huxman, T.E., Zitzer, S.F., Charlet, T.N., Housman, D.C., Coleman, J.S., Fenstermaker, L.K., Seemann, J.R., Nowak, R.S. (2000). Elevated CO2 increases productivity and invasive species success in an arid ecosystem, Nature, Vol. 408, pp.79-81. Naithani, B.D. (1984). Flora of Chamoli, Vol. 1, Published by Director Botanical Survey of India, Hawrah, pp X XI. Table 2 Plant species Flowering and fruiting time (Kala et al., 1998) Flowering and fruiting time (Naithani, 1984) Herbs Cypridium elegans* June June C. himalaicum July- August September Dactylorrhiza hatagirea June August June Oct Listera tenuis August- Sept Aug Sept Aconitum balfouri August- Sept Sept Oct Aconitum heterophyllum July Sept Sept Oct Aconitum violaceum July- Aug Sept Oct Ranunculus pulchellus May July October Corydalis cornuta June- Aug May Oct Corydalis cashemeiam June- July May Aug Podophyllum hexandrum April- June April- Oct Potentilla fruticosa July- Oct July- Oct Artemisia spp. June-July Sept- Oct Aster diplostephioides Aug-Oct Aug- Oct Geum roylei June-July May- Oct Pimpinella diversifolia June- Oct June -Oct Meconopsis aculeate July- Sept June- Oct Corydalis sikkimensis June- Aug July Megacarpaea polyandra June- July May June Astragallus himalayanus Aug- Sept June-Oct Nardostachys grandiflora* July Aug Aug- Oct Picrorhiza kurrooa* June June- July Pleurospermum angelicoides Aug Oct Aug- Oct Saussurea costus* August S. obvallata Aug Sept Aug- Oct Angelica glauca Aug Oct Aug- Oct Rheum emodi July- Aug Lonicera asperifolia June Sept Waldhemia tomentosa August Sept- Oct Primula macrophylla June -July May- June Arnebia benthamii July Aug May- Aug Dioscorea deltoidea* May- Oct Allium humile June July June- Aug Allium stracheyi* August Sept- Oct Allium wallichi August July- Oct Clintonia udensis June May- Sept Orobanche alba July- Aug Aug- Oct Morina longifolia July Sept Stellaria monosperma Aug- Oct Aug- Oct Geranium collinum July-Aug August Geranium pretense Aug-Sept Aug- Sept Anemone rivularis June- Aug May- Aug Caltha palustris May- July May- June Clematis Montana May- June April- June C. roylei Oct- March Ranunculus hirtellus June- Aug May- Oct Thalictrum elegans July- Aug June- Oct T. alpinum June- Aug June- Aug Delphinium cashmerianum Aug -Sept August Impatiens glandulifera July- Aug July- Aug Urtica dioica Aug- Sept Feb-August Silene duthei July- Aug July- Aug Christolea himalayensis Aug- Sept Grasses Sedges Elymus thomsonii August Aug- Sept Agrostis Aug- Sept Aug- Sept Bromus ramosus September Sept- Oct Calamagrostis spp. Aug- Sept Aug- Sept Danthonia spp. July Sept Sept- Oct Festuca spp.F. valesiaca July- Sept April- June, Aug- Oct Poa alpine June- July Sept- Oct Stipa roylei July Sept Sept- Oct Carex spp. Aug- Sept Aug- Sept Kobresia spp. K. laxa July- Aug Sept- Oct, June- Oct Shrubs Hippophae tibetana Berberis chitria, B. aristata May June May- Nov, April- Nov Myricaria bracteata June -July Ribes himalense June July May- Oct Rosa macrophylla June May- Oct Cotoneaster microphylla April- May April- Oct Lonicera parviflora June -Sept Rhododendron anthopogon June April- Oct (3500-4000masl) Salix fruticulosa May- June May Oct Astragallus candolleanus June-Aug Ephedra gerardiana July- Aug Skimmia laureola May- June April- Nov Juniperus indica June- Oct Betula utilis May- June May, Oct- Nov Rhododendron arboreum April- May April- Oct (1500-2700masl) Acer caesium* March May April- Nov Rhododendron campanulatum June-July May- Oct (3000-3500masl) Shorea robusta Acacia catechu March- July Dalbergia sisso Feb- May Adina cardifolia Terminalia Feb- Oct Cassia fistula April- June Mallotus philippensis Bombax ceiba Pinus roxburghii Jan- June P. wallichiana April- June, Sept- Nov Quercus leucotricophora March-May, Dec- Feb Q. semecarpifolia May- August Cedrus deodara Aug- Nov Taxus baccata April Sept- Oct Alnus nepalensis Oct- Dec Abies pindrow May Sept- Oct Picea smithianaa April Oct, Nov Albizia labbeck March- May Cupressus torulosa April- Sept Celtis australis March-April, Sept-Oct Aegle marmelos May- June Table 1: A comparison of western Himalayan plant diversity with the plant diversity of India and Himalayan region. Plant Categories India Western Himalaya Himalaya (Singh and Hajra, 1996) Angiosperms (Nayar, 1996) 17,672 8000 Gymnosperms (Singh and Mudgal, 1997) 48 23 44 Pteridophytes (Ghosh and Ghosh, 1997) 1,135 321 600 Bryophytes (Mosses) (Vohra and Aziz,1997, Singh 1997) 2,850 751 1737 (Liverworts)(D.K. Singh, 2001) 235 Lichens (Singh and Sinha, 1997) 2,021 550 1159 Algae (Rao and Gupta, 1997) 6,500 Fungi (Sharma, 1997) 14,500 6900